Early_navigational_compass History_of_the_compass
1 navigational compass
1.1 china
1.2 medieval europe
1.3 muslim world
1.4 india
1.5 medieval africa
early navigational compass
a number of cultures used lodestones, suspended turn, magnetic compasses navigation. mechanical compasses referenced in written records of chinese, began using navigation sometime between 9th , 11th century, time before 1050, possibly 850. @ present, according kreutz, scholarly consensus chinese invention used in navigation pre-dates first european mention of compass 150 years. first recorded appearance of use of compass in europe (1190) earlier in muslim world (1232), description of magnetized needle , use among sailors occurs in alexander neckam s de naturis rerum (on natures of things), written in 1190.
however, there questions on diffusion. historians suggest arabs introduced compass china europe. suggested compass transmitted china europe , muslim world via indian ocean, or brought crusaders europe china. however, scholars proposed independent european invention of compass:
china
model of han dynasty (206 bc–220 ad) south-indicating ladle or sinan. theorized south-pointing spoons of han dynasty magnetized lodestones.
there disagreement when compass invented. these noteworthy chinese literary references in evidence antiquity:
the magnetic compass first invented device divination chinese han dynasty (since 206 bc). compass used in song dynasty china military navigational orienteering 1040–44, , used maritime navigation 1111 1117.
the earliest chinese literature reference magnetism lies in 4th century bc writings of wang xu (鬼谷子): lodestone attracts iron. book notes people of state of zheng knew position means of south-pointer ; authors suggest refers use of compass.
the first mention of spoon, speculated lodestone, observed pointing in cardinal direction chinese work composed between 70 , 80 ad (lunheng), records when south pointing spoon thrown upon ground, comes rest pointing @ south. within text, author wang chong describes spoon phenomenon has observed. although passage not explicitly mention magnetism, according chen-cheng yih, device described wang chong has been considered earliest form of magnetic compass.
the first clear account of magnetic declination occurs in kuan shih ti li chih meng ( mr. kuan s geomantic instructor ), dating 880. text, chiu thien hsuan nu chhing nang hai chio ching ( blue bag sea angle manual ) around same period, has implicit description of magnetic declination. has been argued knowledge of declination requires use of compass.
a reference magnetized needle mysterious needle appears in 923–926 in chung hua ku chin chu text written ma kao. same passage attributed 4th-century ad writer tshui pao, although postulated former text more authentic. shape of needle compared of tadpole, , may indicate transition between lodestone spoons , iron needles.
the earliest reference specific magnetic direction finder device land navigation recorded in song dynasty book dated 1040–44. there description of iron south-pointing fish floating in bowl of water, aligning south. device recommended means of orientation in obscurity of night. wujing zongyao (武經總要, collection of important military techniques ) stated: when troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights, , directions of space not distinguished...they made use of [mechanical] south-pointing carriage, or south-pointing fish. achieved heating of metal (especially if steel), known today thermoremanence, , have been capable of producing weak state of magnetization. while chinese achieved magnetic remanence , induction time, in both europe , asia phenomenon attributed supernatural , occult, until 1600 when william gilbert published de magnete.
the first incontestable reference magnetized needle in chinese literature appears in 1088. dream pool essays, written song dynasty polymath scientist shen kuo, contained detailed description of how geomancers magnetized needle rubbing tip lodestone, , hung magnetic needle 1 single strain of silk bit of wax attached center of needle. shen kuo pointed out needle prepared way pointed south, north.
the earliest explicit recorded use of magnetic compass maritime navigation found in zhu yu s book pingchow table talks (萍洲可談; pingzhou ketan) , dates 1111 1117: ship s pilots acquainted configuration of coasts; @ night steer stars , , in daytime sun. in dark weather @ south pointing needle.
diagram of ming dynasty mariner s compass
thus, use of magnetic compass military land navigation occurred sometime before 1044, incontestable evidence use of compass maritime navigational device did not appear until 1117.
the typical chinese navigational compass in form of magnetic needle floating in bowl of water. according needham, chinese in song dynasty , continuing yuan dynasty did make use of dry compass, although type never became used in china wet compass. evidence of found in shilin guangji ( guide through forest of affairs ), published in 1325 chen yuanjing, although compilation had taken place between 1100 , 1250. dry compass in china dry suspension compass, wooden frame crafted in shape of turtle hung upside down board, lodestone sealed in wax, , if rotated, needle @ tail point in northern cardinal direction. although european compass-card in box frame , dry pivot needle adopted in china after use taken japanese pirates in 16th century (who had in turn learned of europeans), chinese design of suspended dry compass persisted in use 18th century. however, according kreutz there single chinese reference dry-mounted needle (built pivoted wooden tortoise) dated between 1150 , 1250, , claims there no clear indication chinese mariners ever used floating needle in bowl until 16th century.
the first recorded use of 48 position mariner s compass on sea navigation noted in customs of cambodia yuan dynasty diplomat zhou daguan, described 1296 voyage wenzhou angkor thom in detail; when ship set sail wenzhou, mariner took needle direction of “ding wei” position, equivalent 22.5 degree sw. after arrived @ baria, mariner took kun shen needle , or 52.5 degree sw. zheng s navigation map, known mao kun map , contains large amount of detail needle records of zheng s expeditions.
medieval europe
a drawing of compass in mid 14th-century copy of epistola de magnete of peter peregrinus.
alexander neckam reported use of magnetic compass region of english channel in texts de utensilibus , de naturis rerum, written between 1187 , 1202, after returned england france , prior entering augustinian abbey @ cirencester. in 1863 edition of neckam s de naturis rerum, thomas wright provides translation of passage in neckam mentions sailors being guided compass needle:
the sailors, moreover, sail on sea, when in cloudy whether can no longer profit light of sun, or when world wrapped in darkness of shades of night, , ignorant point of compass ship s course directed, touch magnet needle, (the needle) whirled round in circle until, when motion ceases, point looks direct north.
neckam s clear understanding of mariner s compass in late twelfth-century, , description of use in marine navigation, has cast doubt on whether compass was, professor derk bodde has argued, 1 of china s gifts west . neckam s description, scholars have suggested not unlikely compass invented in europe, independently of eastern technologies. further supported jacques de vitry s mention of compass being used @ sea in 1218, indicates broader knowledge of compass , uses in medieval northern europe:
an iron needle, after having been in contact loadstone, turns toward northern star, which, axis of firmament, remains immoveable, while others follow course, necessary navigate sea.
robert southey suggested siete partidas contained reference 1250s needle being used navigation.
in 1269 petrus peregrinus of maricourt described floating compass astronomical purposes dry compass seafaring, in well-known epistola de magnete.
in mediterranean, introduction of compass, @ first known magnetized pointer floating in bowl of water, went hand in hand improvements in dead reckoning methods, , development of portolan charts, leading more navigation during winter months in second half of 13th century. while practice ancient times had been curtail sea travel between october , april, due in part lack of dependable clear skies during mediterranean winter, prolongation of sailing season resulted in gradual, sustained increase in shipping movement; around 1290 sailing season start in late january or february, , end in december. additional few months of considerable economic importance. instance, enabled venetian convoys make 2 round trips year levant, instead of one.
at same time, traffic between mediterranean , northern europe increased, first evidence of direct commercial voyages mediterranean english channel coming in closing decades of 13th century, , 1 factor may compass made traversal of bay of biscay safer , easier. however, critics kreutz have suggested later in 1410 started steering compass.
muslim world
al-ashraf s diagram of compass , qibla. ms cairo tr 105, copied in yemen, 1293.
the earliest reference compass in muslim world occurs in persian talebook 1232, compass used navigation during trip in red sea or persian gulf. fish-shaped iron leaf described indicates chinese design has spread outside of china. earliest arabic reference compass, in form of magnetic needle in bowl of water, comes work baylak al-qibjāqī, written in 1282 while in cairo. al-qibjāqī described needle-and-bowl compass used navigation on voyage took syria alexandria in 1242. since author describes having witnessed use of compass on ship trip forty years earlier, scholars inclined antedate first appearance in arab world accordingly. al-qibjāqī reports sailors in indian ocean used iron fish instead of needles.
late in 13th century, yemeni sultan , astronomer al-malik al-ashraf described use of compass qibla indicator find direction mecca. in treatise astrolabes , sundials, al-ashraf includes several paragraphs on construction of compass bowl (ṭāsa). uses compass determine north point, meridian (khaṭṭ niṣf al-nahār), , qibla. first mention of compass in medieval islamic scientific text , earliest known use qibla indicator, although al-ashraf did not claim first use purpose.
in 1300, arabic treatise written egyptian astronomer , muezzin ibn simʿūn describes dry compass used determining qibla. peregrinus compass, however, ibn simʿūn s compass did not feature compass card. in 14th century, syrian astronomer , timekeeper ibn al-shatir (1304–1375) invented timekeeping device incorporating both universal sundial , magnetic compass. invented purpose of finding times of prayers. arab navigators introduced 32-point compass rose during time. in 1399, egyptian reports 2 different kinds of magnetic compass. 1 instrument “fish” made of willow wood or pumpkin, magnetic needle inserted , sealed tar or wax prevent penetration of water. other instrument dry compass.
navigational sailor s compass rose, 1607
in 15th century, description given ibn majid while aligning compass pole star indicates aware of magnetic declination. explicit value declination given ʿizz al-dīn al-wafāʾī (fl. 1450s in cairo).
pre modern arabic sources refer compass using term ṭāsa (lit. bowl ) floating compass, or ālat al-qiblah ( qibla instrument ) device used orienting towards mecca.
friedrich hirth suggested arab , persian traders, learned polarity of magnetic needle chinese, applied compass navigation before chinese did. however, needham described theory erroneous , originates because of mistraslation of term chia-ling found in zhu yu s book pingchow table talks.
india
the development of magnetic compass highly uncertain. compass mentioned in fourth-century ad tamil nautical books; moreover, name of macchayantra (fish machine) suggest chinese origin. in indian form, wet compass consisted of fish-shaped magnet, float in bowl filled oil. fish shape typical chinese design.
medieval africa
there evidence distribution of compass china reached eastern africa way of trade through end of silk road ended in east african centre of trade in somalia , swahili city-state kingdoms. there evidence swahili maritime merchants , sailors acquired compass @ point , used navigation.
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