The_Colonial_Period Northern_Rhodesia

1 colonial period

1.1 mining developments
1.2 economic recovery
1.3 legislative council

1.3.1 pre-war
1.3.2 post-war
1.3.3 1959 order-in-council


1.4 law

1.4.1 subsidiary courts
1.4.2 native courts
1.4.3 chief justices of north-eastern rhodesia
1.4.4 chief justices of northern rhodesia


1.5 governing people
1.6 land policies
1.7 opposition minority rule
1.8 world war ii

the colonial period
mining developments

the important factor in colony s economy copper. ancient surface copper workings known @ kansanshi (near solwezi), bwana mkubwa , luanshya, on later became known copperbelt , exploration in 1895 british south africa company s celebrated american scout, frederick russell burnham, led , oversaw massive northern territories (bsa) exploration co. expedition first established westerners major copper deposits existed in central africa. along kafue river in northern rhodesia, burnham saw many similarities copper deposits had worked in united states, , encountered natives wearing copper bracelets. later, british south africa company built towns along river , railway transport copper through mozambique.

bsac claimed own mineral rights on whole of northern rhodesia under concessions granted between 1890 , 1910 lewanika covering poorly defined area of north-western rhodesia or negotiated joseph thomson , alfred sharpe in 1890 , 1891 local chiefs in disputed area of north-eastern rhodesia. claim accepted british government. after charter ended, bsac joined group of 9 south african , british companies financed development of nchanga mines, prevent them falling under control. however, main concern receive royalties.

however significant were, these copper deposits not exploited commercially until southern rhodesian railway had extended across zambezi , continued northward, reach belgian congo border, did in 1909. time, mining had started in katanga, rich copper oxide ores occurred near surface. in northern rhodesia, surface ores of poorer quality, , copper worked intermittently @ bwana mkubwa, until in 1924 rich copper sulphide ores discovered 100 feet below surface. prior 1924, there had not been significant exploitation of northern rhodesia s mineral resources: there cattle farming in barotseland, northern rhodesia had attracted little white settlement, in contrast southern neighbour. unlike southern rhodesia, had seen flood of fortune-seeking prospectors seeking set independent mines, northern rhodesia s mining policy agree large-scale deals major commercial mining companies.

large-scale mining on northern rhodesian copperbelt started after 1924 , financed united states of america , south africa. chester beatty s , sir edmund davis s selection trust had interest in small bwana mkubwa copper mine, had opened in 1901 on site of ancient mineral workings @ southern end of copperbelt, , beatty responsible development of roan antelope mine @ luanshya in 1926. copper becoming more valuable more of needed electrical components , motor industry. in 1927, beatty sold one-third interest in roan antelope american metal company (amc), interests in refining , selling metals, , in 1928 formed rhodesian selection trust (rst – later renamed roan selection trust) finance further mining developments. beatty sold controlling interest in rst amc in 1930, becoming amc s largest shareholder. amc s commitment rst allowed bring mufulira mine partial production in 1930, although became operational in 1933, because of great depression.

south african interest in copperbelt led anglo american corporation, gained interest in bwana mkubwa company in 1924 , acquired one-third interest in mufulira in 1928. in 1928, anglo american acquired control of nkana mine @ kitwe , formed rhodesian anglo american, other shareholders included , south african finance houses , british south africa company (bsac). bsac exchanged own shares rhodesian anglo american ones, rhodesian anglo american became major shareholder in bsac. both roan antelope , nkana started commercial production in 1931.

at first, little british capital invested in copperbelt. however, in 1929 seemed possible fourth source of copper, nchanga mines, might fall under control: american cartel sought restrict supply increase prices controlled three-quarters of world copper production, british government encouraged group of 9 british companies finance nchanga. group dominated rhodesian anglo american, british participation still limited. in 1931 ownership of bwana mkubwa , nchanga amalgamated rhokana corporation, in rhodesian anglo american predominated. situation in 1931 rhodesian selection trust (rst) owned roan antelope , dominant interest in mufulira, while rhokana corporation owned remained of mufulira, nkana, nchanga , bwana mkubwa. shareholding structure of rst , particularly of rhokana complex.

while @ first existence cartel encouraged investment, consumers sought alternative , cheaper materials , economic downturn, price of copper crashed in 1931. international agreement restricted output. caused catastrophe in northern rhodesia many employees sacked, , put end hopes many europeans had held of turning northern rhodesia white dominion southern rhodesia. many settlers took opportunity move southern rhodesia, while africans returned farms.

economic recovery

despite economic crash large firms still able maintain profit. fact unemployed workers had left meant there no increases in taxation, , labour costs remained low. @ 1932 conference of copper producers in new york rhodesian companies objected further market intervention, , when no agreement made, previous restrictions on competition lapsed. placed northern rhodesians in powerful position. meanwhile, british south africa company sold remaining southern rhodesian holdings southern rhodesian government in 1933 giving capital invest in developing other mines. negotiated agreement between rhodesian railways , copper mine companies exclusive use, , used resources freed buy major stake in anglo american corporation. end of 1930s, northern rhodesian copper mining booming.

legislative council
pre-war

when northern rhodesia became protectorate under british empire on 1 april 1924, legislative council established on governor of northern rhodesia sat ex officio presiding officer. initial council consisted entirely of nominated members, no procedure existed @ time holding elections. however, members divided between official members held executive posts in administration of protectorate, , unofficial members held no posts.

in 1926, system of election worked out , first election held 5 elected unofficial members, took seats 9 nominated official members. elector in northern rhodesia had united kingdom citizen, requirement practically ruled out africans british protected persons. in addition, would-be electors required fill in application form in english, , have annual income of @ least £200 or occupy immovable property worth £250 (tribal or community occupation of such property excluded).

in 1929, number of unofficial members increased seven. failed meet settler aspirations , in 1937 members demanded parity if numbers 9 official members, , seats on executive council, until wholly composed of officials: demand rejected. in 1938, there first acknowledgement of need represent opinions of africans, , 1 nominated unofficial european member added purpose, replacing 1 of nominated officials, official , unofficial members each numbered eight. in 1941 1 additional member added both nominated officials , elected unofficials, total of ten unofficials (nine elected) , 9 nominated officials.

post-war

in 1945, there increase in number of unofficial european members representing africans 1 three, , additional 2 nominated unofficials introduced total of five. 1948, african representative council recommended 2 african unofficial members nomination governor. 1948 saw replacement of governor speaker, sat ex officio, , introduction of 2 members nominated on advice of african representative council.

an order-in-council coming effect on 31 december 1953 provided new legislative council consist of speaker ex officio, 8 nominated officials, twelve elected unofficials, 4 african unofficial members nominated governor on advice african representative council, , 2 nominated unofficial european members representing interests of africans. nominated officials identified chief secretary, attorney general, financial secretary, , secretary native affairs, , 4 others.

1959 order-in-council

1959 saw large increase in proportion of elected members. legislative council consisted of speaker , 30 members. 8 of these members elected: 8 nominated same 4 named posts before, 2 others, , 2 nominated unofficial members (who not responsible african interests). these 2 members retained provide there members called upon ministerial duties if there few elected members willing so.

the 22 elected members organised in such way ensure there 8 african , 14 europeans. electoral roll divided general , special special voters having lower financial requirements general voters, majority of special voters africans (the nationality requirement had been varied british protected persons eligible vote). in towns in majority of europeans lived, there twelve constituencies; special voters have no more 1 third of influence on total.

in rural areas africans lived, 6 special constituencies drawn. both general , special voters participated in elections , votes counted equal weight, although majority of voters africans. in special constituency areas, there 2 composite reserved european seats , in special voters restricted 1 third of influence. there 2 reserved african seats in areas of ordinary constituencies, although votes counted in full.

law

before end of bsac administration, northern rhodesian law in conformity laws of england , wales , high court of northern rhodesia subordinate of united kingdom. continued after 1924; united kingdom statutes in force on 17 august 1911 applied northern rhodesia, of later years if specific protectorate. africans parties before courts, native law , customs applied, except if repugnant natural justice or morality , or inconsistent other law in force.

subsidiary courts

below high court magistrates courts fell 4 classes:

criminal trials treason, murder , manslaughter, or attempts , conspiracies commit them, reserved high court. civil matters relating constitutional issues, wills , marriages restricted high court.

native courts

the native courts ordinance 1937 allowed governor issue warrant recognising native courts. jurisdiction covered natives, extended criminal , civil jurisdiction. native courts not allowed impose death penalty, nor try witchcraft without permission. there provision native court of appeal, if not established, appeal provincial commissioner , thence high court.

chief justices of north-eastern rhodesia

chief justices of northern rhodesia

governing people

lord passfield.

from 1890s , until after end of bsac administration, policy of direct rule on africans operated, within limits of possible small numbers of white district officers. except in barotseland, these officers deprived traditional chiefs of powers of administering justice, , deposed troublesome ones, although chiefs accepted reduced role local agents of district officers. late 1920s, idea of indirect rule lord lugard had proposed in dual mandate in british tropical africa had gained favour. lugard suggested that, in colonies climate , geography precluded extensive european settlement, african interests should recognised paramount , development of such colonies must benefit indigenous population economic interests of colonial power. however, introduced northern rhodesia in 1930 policy of indirect rule little different in practice previous policy. although legitimate traditional chiefs , other appointed chiefs , headmen nominated native authorities, had limited judicial powers , limited financial resources build institutions of self-government within communities. apart in barotseland, district officers still retained of former powers, , used native authorities intermediaries.

in june 1930, colonial secretary of labour government, lord passfield, published memorandum on native policy in east , central africa. statement of colonial policy emphatic reassertion of principle of paramountcy of african interests, predecessor colonial secretary, conservative leo amery, has attempted water-down in 1927 when setting hilton young commission. passfield s memorandum stated no further white minority governments permitted, dismissing settler aspirations of self-government in kenya , northern rhodesia. turned northern rhodesian europeans against association east africa towards union southern rhodesia. in 1933, substantial minority in northern rhodesian legislature favoured amalgamation southern rhodesia, despite vigorous african opposition. however, majority of settlers still cautious being marginalised greater numbers of europeans in southern rhodesia.

from 1943, 6 provincial councils set form second tier of african representative institutions above native authorities. these purely advisory bodies, advice provincial commissioner need not accept. of members of provincial councils rural , many chiefs, educated urban africans included. in 1946, third tier added formation of african representative council whole protectorate, members nominated provincial councils. african representative council largely advisory, later able make recommendations africans nominated members of legislative council.

land policies

in northern rhodesia, british south africa company claimed ownership of unalienated land in territory, , right alienate it. europeans occupied land along line of railway , near towns, @ first there no land shortage, population density low , european population small. in 1913, bsac drew plans native reserves along southern rhodesian lines, outside africans have no right own or occupy land, these plans not put effect under company administration. however, reserves created in 1928 , 1929 in northern , eastern parts of protectorate, , half land adjacent line of main railway line reserved european settlement , farming. in 1938, reported native reserves overcrowded, while of land reserved europeans unoccupied , unused

in 1918, privy council of united kingdom had rejected british south africa company claims unalienated land in southern rhodesia, , raised questions company s claim unalienated land north of zambezi. however, company s claim in northern rhodesia based on concessions granted rather conquest and, although northern rhodesian parliamentary committee in 1921 recommended these claims should referred privy council, british government preferred negotiate overall settlement end of bsac administration in northern rhodesia. acknowledged company s claim. under agreement of 29 september 1923, northern rhodesian government took on entire control of lands controlled bsac 1 april 1924, paying company half net rents , proceeds of land sales.

opposition minority rule

firstly, independent african churches such ethiopian church in barotseland, kitawala or watchtower movement , others rejected european missionary control , promoted millennialism doctrines authorities considered seditious. not politically active, watchtower movement supposedly involved in 1935 copperbelt riots, incorrectly. secondly, africans educated missions or abroad sought social, economic , political advancement through voluntary associations, called welfare associations . protests muted until 1930s, , concentrated on improving african education , agriculture, political representation distant aspiration. however, several of welfare associations on copperbelt involved in 1935 disturbances.

hut tax gradually introduced different areas of northern rhodesia between 1901 , 1913. introduction caused little unrest, in 1909–10 gwembe branch of tonga people staged relatively non-violent protest against introduction, severely suppressed. sharp increase in rate of hut tax in 1920 caused unrest, did 1935 increase in tax rate on copperbelt.

in 1935, northern rhodesian government proposed increase rates of tax paid african miners working on copperbelt, while reducing in rural areas. although provincial commissioners had been told change on 11 january 1935, not until 20 may native tax amendment ordinance signed, rates implemented of 1 january 1935. retrospective increase outraged miners, had grievances low pay , poor conditions, , pass laws had been introduced in 1927 , required africans have permits live , work on copperbelt. provoked all-out copperbelt strike lasted 22 may 25 may in 3 of 4 mines in area, namely mufulira, nkana , roan antelope. british south africa police sent southern rhodesia nkana suppress it. when, on 29 may, police in luanshya attempted disperse group of africans, violence erupted , 6 africans shot dead. loss of life shocked both sides , strike suspended while commission of inquiry set up. concluded way increases announced key factor, , if had been introduced calmly, have been accepted.

one effect of strike establishment of tribal elders advisory councils africans across copperbelt, following system introduced @ roan antelope mine. these councils acted minor courts, referring other matters mine compound manager or district organiser. native courts operated outside urban areas , these introduced towns. mufulira first, in 1938, , end of 1940 existed in kitwe, luanshya, ndola , chingola on copperbelt, lusaka , broken hill in centre of country, , livingstone on border southern rhodesia. simultaneously, african urban advisory councils established in main copperbelt towns. relations between africans , europeans strained.

a second round of labour hostilities broke out in march 1940. prompted successful wildcat strike action european miners @ 2 copperbelt mines, demanded increased basic pay, war bonus , closed shop prevent advancement of african miners. european strikers demands largely conceded, including agreement on preventing permanent dilution of labour . followed refusal grant proportionate increase of pay african miners, went on strike despite offer of increased bonus payments. government urged mine-owners increase african miners pay, following confrontation between workers collecting pay , diehard strikers, tried force miners return work, using troops of northern rhodesian regiment. in violence followed, troops fired on strikers, causing 13 deaths , 4 later. colonial secretary forced governor hold commission of inquiry, found conditions @ nkana , mufulira had little changed 1935, although @ nchanga , roan antelope no strike had happened. recommended increases in pay , improvements in conditions, mine-owners agreed, , african miners should eligible jobs reserved european miners. last recommendation not implemented then, gradually introduced after 1943.

world war ii

during world war ii, northern rhodesian military units participated on side of united kingdom. specifically, northern rhodesian forces involved in east african campaign, battle of madagascar , in burma. later in war, british government s ministry of supply entered agreements northern rhodesian , canadian copper mines supply copper needed armed forces set prices. removed free competition , therefore kept prices down; british companies, main copper producers subject excess profits tax. did have guaranteed market, , in 1943 ministry of supply paid half of cost of expansion programme planned nchanga mine.

there election in 1941; roy welensky, leader in rhodesian railway workers union had been elected in 1938, set northern rhodesian labour party party favouring amalgamation earlier in year. 5 candidates of party elected. development spotted in london labour party mps concerned demand, if granted, diminish position of africans of northern rhodesia. welensky led move in legislative council restrict british south africa company s mineral rights garnered african support; company agreed in 1949 assign 20% of revenues government, , transfer remaining rights in 1986.