History South_Slavs

1 history

1.1 accounts
1.2 migrations , postulated homeland
1.3 interaction balkan population
1.4 relationship byzantium
1.5 slavic states

1.5.1 carantania
1.5.2 bosnia
1.5.3 bulgaria
1.5.4 croatia
1.5.5 zachlumia
1.5.6 duklja (zeta)
1.5.7 serbia


1.6 ottoman period
1.7 modern era

1.7.1 montenegro

history
early accounts

little known slavs before 5th century. history prior can tentatively hypothesized via archeological , linguistic studies. of know history after 6th century works of byzantine historians. in work de bellis, procopius portrays sclavini (supposed slavs) unusually tall , strong, tan complexion , reddish-blonde hair, living rugged , primitive life. lived in huts, distant 1 , changed place of abode. not ruled single leader, long time lived in democracy . john of ephesus, in ecclesiastical history portrays slavs extremely violent people. believed in many gods, procopius suggests believed in one, perhaps supreme god. has been identified perun, creator of lightning. slavs went battle on foot, charging straight @ enemy, armed spears , small shields, did not wear armour.

this information supplanted pseudo-maurice s work strategikon, describing slavs numerous disorganised , leaderless people, resistant hardship , not allowing enslaved or conquered. lack of understanding may attributed matrilineal succession practiced among southern slavs.

polities in south-eastern europe c. 520 ad

they made homes in forests, rivers , wetlands. jordanes states slavs have homelands on danube, not far northern bank. subsequent information slavic states , slavs interaction greeks comes de administrando imperio emperor constantine vii porphyrogenitus, compilations of miracles of saint demetrius, history theophylact simocatta , royal frankish annals.

migrations , postulated homeland

scholars have traditionally placed slavic urheimat in pripet marshes of ukraine, or alternatively between bug , dniepr. in 5th century slavs mentioned living north of danube in written sources era. 5th century, supposedly spread outward in directions. balkans 1 of regions lay in path of expanding slavs.

regarding slavs mentioned 6th-century byzantine chroniclers, florin curta states homeland north of danube , not in belorussian-ukrainian borderlands. clarifies itinerant form of agriculture (they lacked knowledge of crop rotation) may have encouraged mobility on micro regional scale . material culture danube suggests there evolution of slavic society between 7th century , 8th century. byzantines re-asserted danubian defences in mid 6th century, slavs yield of pillaged goods dropped. reaction economic isolation, , external threats (e.g. avars , byzantines), political , military mobilisation occurred. archeological sites late 7th century show earlier settlements merely non-specific collection of hamlets began evolve larger communities differentiated areas (e.g. designated areas public feasts industrial area craftsmanship). community elites rose prominence, came embody collective interest , responsibility group. if group identity can called ethnicity, , if ethnicity can called slavic, formed in shadow of justinian s forts, not in pripet marshes.

the byzantines broadly grouped numerous slav tribes 2 groups: sclaveni , antes. both first encountered in lower danube region. some, such bulgarian scholar vasil zlatarski, suggest first group settled western balkans, becoming 1 of forerunners of linguistic group became bosnians, serbs , croats, whilst offshoots of antes settled eastern regions (roughly speaking), becoming 1 of ancestors of bulgarians. danube, commenced raiding byzantine empire 520s, on annual basis. spread destruction, taking loot , herds of cattle, seizing prisoners , taking fortresses. often, byzantine empire stretched defending rich asian provinces arabs, persians , turks. meant numerically small, disorganised slavic raids capable of causing disruption, not capture larger, fortified cities.

large scale slavic settlement in balkans begins in late 570s , 580s. menander, late 6th-century historian, speaks of 100,000 slavs pouring thrace (though exaggeration) , illyricum, taking cities , settling down. these large scale population movements associated arrival area of avars, nomadic turkic group had lost war against other nomads further east, , settled in carpathian basin, subjugating many small slavic tribes. facilitated fact byzantine empire embroiled in series of wars sassanid persia @ time , unable send troops balkans.

by 580s, slav communities on danube became larger , more organized, , avars exerted influence, raids became larger , resulted in permanent settlement. scholars consider period of 581-584 beginning of large scale slavic settlement in balkans. around time, chronicle known miracles of saint demetrius speaks of large-scale slavic settlement in area around thessaloniki, although slavs never managed take city itself. in 591, byzantines ended war persians , serious attempt restore northern border made emperor maurice, skilled strategist. although largely successful, maurice did not manage eliminate avars, , deposed , murdered in 602 (in part due refusal ransom large number of captives slaughtered avars). war persians broke out again, , northern border collapsed once more.

the iron gate on serbo-romanian border

the avars arrived in europe in late 550s. although identity not last, avars impacted events of balkans. settled carpathian plain, west of main slavic settlements. crushed gepid kingdom (a germanic tribe) , pushed lombards italy, opening western balkans. asserted authority on many slavs, divided numerous petty tribes. many slavs relocated avar base in carpathian basin , galvanized effective infantry force. other slavic tribes continued raid independently, sometime coordinating attacks allies of avars. others still spilled imperial lands fled avars. avars , slavic allies tended focus on western balkans, whilst independent slavic tribes predominated in east. following unsuccessful siege of constantinople in 626, avars reputation diminished, , confederacy troubled civil wars between avars , bulgar , slav clients. rule contracted region of carpathian basin. archaeological evidence show there intermixing of slavic, avar , gepid cultures, suggesting later avars amalgamation of different peoples. avar khanate collapsed after ongoing defeats @ hands of franks, bulgars , slavs (c. 810), , avars ceased exist. remained of avars absorbed slavs , bulgars.

in de administrando imperio , byzantine emperor constantine porphyrogenitus mentions white croatia (originally Βελοχρωβάτοι Χρωβάτοι) place which, in 7th century, part of croatian tribes started journey balkans (more specific, today s dalmatia , bosnia-herzegovina) after invited there byzantine empire (emperor flavius heraclius augustus) protect borders.the earliest croatian state principality of dalmatia. prince trpimir of dalmatia called duke of croats in 852. in 925 croatian duke of dalmatia tomislav of trpimir united croats , elevated croatia kingdom. organized state annexing principality of pannonia maintaining close ties pagania , zahumlje.

by 700 ad, slavs had settled in of central , southeast europe, austria down peloponnese of greece, , adriatic black seas, exception of coastal areas , mountainous regions of greek peninsula. settlement pattern far uniform however, major routes (such morava valley) experiencing greater settlement. far fewer numbers of slavs appear have settled in parts of greece slavs did settle, , in remote mountainous regions such bosnia, herzegovina , montenegro. however, archaeological traces of slavic penetration balkans scant, in period prior 8th century. has led scholars cast doubt on accuracy of historical sources, describing large scale settlements slavs throughout balkans, including southern greece.

interaction balkan population

prior advent of roman rule, number of native or autochthonous populations had lived in balkans since ancient times. south of jireček line greeks. north, there illyrians in western portion (illyricum), thracians in thrace (modern bulgaria , eastern macedonia), , dacians in moesia (northern bulgaria , northeastern serbia) , dacia (modern romania). tribalistic , lacked awareness of greater ethno-political affiliations. on classical ages, @ times invaded, conquered , influenced celts, greeks , romans. roman influence, however, limited cities later concentrated along dalmatian coast, later spreading few scattered cities inside balkan interior particularly along river danube (sirmium, belgrade, niš). roman citizens throughout empire settled in these cities , in adjacent countryside. vast hinterland still populated indigenous peoples retained own tribalistic character.

following fall of rome , numerous barbarian raids, population in balkans dropped, did commerce , general standards of living. many people killed, or taken prisoner invaders. demographic decline particularly attributed drop in number of indigenous peasants living in rural areas. vulnerable raids , hardest hit financial crises plagued falling empire. however, balkans not desolate; considerable numbers of indigenous people remained. areas tended affected raids (e.g. lands around major land routes, such morava corridor). pre-slavic inhabitants sought refuge inside fortified cities , islands, whilst others fled remote mountains , forests, joining non-romanized kin , adopting transhumant pastoral lifestyle. larger cities able persevere, flourish, through hard times. archaeological evidence suggests culture in cities changed whereby roman-style forums , large public buildings abandoned , cities modified (i.e. built on top of hills or cliff-tops , fortified walls). centerpiece of such cities church. transformation roman culture byzantine culture paralleled rise of new ruling class: old land-owning aristocracy gave way rule military elites , clergy.

in addition autochthons, there remnants of previous invaders such huns , various germanic peoples when slavs arrived. sarmatian tribes (such iazyges) recorded have still lived in banat region of danube.

as slavs spread south balkans, interacted numerous peoples , cultures there. since lifestyle revolved around agriculture, preferentially settled rural lands along major highway networks moved along. whilst not take larger fortified towns, looted countryside , captured many prisoners. in strategikon, pseudo-maurice noted commonplace slavs accept newly acquired prisoners ranks. despite byzantine accounts of pillaging , looting , possible many indigenous peoples voluntarily assimilated slavs. slavs lacked organised, centrally ruled organisation hastened process of willful slavicisation. strongest evidence such co-existence archaeological remains along danube , dacia known ipoteşti-cândeşti culture. here, villages dating 6th century represent continuity earlier slavic pen kovka culture; modified admixture daco-getic, daco-roman and/or byzantine elements within same village. such interactions awarded pre-slavic populace protection within ranks of dominant, new tribe. in return, contributed genetic , cultural development south slavs. phenomenon led exchange of various loan-words. example, slavic name greeks , grci, derived latin graecus presumably encountered through local romanised populace. conversely, vlachs borrowed many slavic words, pertaining agricultural terms. whether of original thracian or illyrian culture , language remained time slavs arrived matter of debate. difficult issue analyse because of overriding greek , roman influence in region. however, thracian , illyrian identities disappear history during period.

over time, due larger number of slavs, descendants of of indigenous populations of balkans slavicized, exception being greece, smaller number slavs scattered there came hellenized on succeeding centuries (aided in time more greeks returning greece in 9th century , role of church , administration). romance speakers within fortified dalmatian cities managed retain culture , language long time, dalmatian romance spoken until high middle ages. however, assimilated body of slavs. in contrast, romano-dacians in wallachia managed maintain latin-based language, despite slavic influence. after centuries of peaceful co-existence, groups fused form romanians.

relationship byzantium

byzantine literary accounts (i.e., john of ephesus, etc.) mention slavs raiding areas of greece during 580s. according later sources such miracles of saint demetrius, drougoubitai, sagoudatai, belegezitai, baiounetai, , berzetai laid siege thessaloniki in 614–616. however, particular event in actuality of local significance. combined effort of avars , slavs 2 years later failed take city. in 626, combined avar, bulgar , slav army besieged constantinople. siege broken, had repercussions upon power , prestige of avar khanate. slavic pressure on thessaloniki ebbed after 617/618, until siege of thessalonica (676–678) coalition of rynchinoi, sagoudatai, drougoubitai , stroumanoi attacked. time, belegezites known velegeziti did not participate , in fact supplied besieged citizens of thessaloniki grain.

a number of medieval sources attest presence of slavs in greece. while en route holy land in 732, willibald reached city of monemvasia, in land of slavinia . particular passage vita willibaldi interpreted indication of slavic presence in hinterland of peloponnese. in reference plague of 744–747, constantine vii wrote during 10th century entire country [of peloponnese] slavonized . source period, chronicle of monemvasia speaks of slavs overrunning western peloponnese, of eastern peloponnese, athens, remaining in byzantine hands throughout period. however, such sources far ideal, , reliability debated. example, while byzantinist peter charanis believes chronicle of monemvasia reliable account, other scholars point out overstates impact of slavic , avar raids of greece during time.

max vasmer, prominent linguist , indo-europeanist, complements late medieval historical accounts listing 429 slavic toponyms peloponnese alone. extent presence of these toponyms reflects compact slavic settlement matter of debate, , might represent accumulative strata of toponyms rather being attributed earliest settlement phase

though medieval chroniclers attest slavic hordes occupying byzantine territories, archaeological evidence of actual slavic presence , dating today debated. florin curta points out evidence of substantial slavic presence not appear before 7th century , remains qualitatively different slavic culture found north of danube. authors point rapid adoption of local balkanic cultures slav-speaking groups in specific areas such dalmatia. there, investigations of burial graves , cemetery types indicate uninterrupted continuity of traditions late antiquity, reflecting contiguous demographic spread chronologically matches arrival of slavic-speaking groups. furthermore, when medieval sources speak of places going slavs , mean byzantine authority disappeared, not these regions had witnessed large-scale migration; doubtless many local people governed themselves. indeed, in wake of roman collapse, communities in balkan interior , hinterland became slavs creating new identities , adopting new language, oriented toward east-central europe rather graeco-mediterranean world. timothy gregory surmises:

t e gregory, history of byzantium. wiley-blackwell, 2010. pg 169

relations between slavs , greeks peaceful apart (supposed) initial settlement , intermittent uprisings. being agriculturalists, slavs traded greeks inside towns. furthermore, slavs surely did not occupy whole interior or eliminate greek population; greek villages continued exist in interior, governing themselves, possibly paying tribute slavs. villages mixed, , quite possibly degree of hellenization of slavs greeks of peloponnese had begun during period, before re-hellenization completed byzantine emperors.

when byzantines not fighting in eastern territories, able regain imperial control. achieved through theme system, referring administrative province on army corps centered, under control of strategos ( general ). theme system first appeared in 7th century, during reign of emperor heraclius, , byzantine empire recovered, imposed on areas came under byzantine control. first balkan theme created in thrace, in 680 ad. 695, second theme, of hellas (or helladikoi ), established, in eastern central greece. subduing slavs in these themes matter of accommodating needs of slavic elites , providing them incentives inclusion imperial administration.

it not until 100 years later third theme established. in 782–784, eunuch general staurakios campaigned thessaloniki, south thessaly , peloponnese. captured many slavs , transferred them elsewhere, anatolia (these slavs dubbed slavesians). not known whether territory restored imperial authority result of campaign, though was. sometime between 790 , 802, theme of macedonia created, centered on adrianople (i.e., east of actual geographic entity). serious , successful recovery began under nicephorus (802–811). in 805, theme of peloponnese created. according chronicle of monemvasia in 805 byzantine governor of corinth went war slavs, obliterated them, , allowed original inhabitants claim own; city of patras recovered , region re-settled greeks. in 9th century, new themes continued arise, although many small , carved out of original, larger themes. new themes in 9th century included of thessalonica, dyrrhachium, strymon, , nicopolis. these themes, byzantine laws , culture flowed interior. end of 9th century of greece culturally , administratively greek again, exception of few small slavic tribes in mountains such melingoi , ezeritai. although remain relatively autonomous until ottoman times, such tribes exception rather rule.

saints methodius , cyril, credited devising glagolitic alphabet, first alphabet used transcribe old church slavonic language.

apart military expeditions against slavs, re-hellenization process begun under nicephorus involved (often forcible) transfer of peoples. many slavs moved other parts of empire, such anatolia , made serve in military. in return, many greeks sicily , asia minor brought interior of greece, increase number of defenders @ emperor s disposal , dilute concentration of slavs. non-greeks transferred balkans, such armenians. more of peripheral territories of byzantine empire lost in following centuries, e.g., sicily, southern italy , asia minor, greek-speakers made own way greece. re-hellenization of greece through population transfers , cultural activities of church successful suggests slavs found in midst of many greeks. doubtful such large number have been transplanted greece in 9th century; there surely had been many greeks remaining in greece , continuing speak greek throughout period of slavic occupation. success of re-hellenization suggests number of slavs in greece far smaller numbers found in former yugoslavia , bulgaria. example, bulgaria not hellenized when byzantine administration established on bulgarians in 1018 last on century, until 1186.

eventually, byzantines recovered imperial border north way today s region of macedonia (which serve northern border of byzantine empire until 1018), although independent slavic villages remained. slavs supposedly occupied entire balkan interior, constantinople cut off dalmatian cities under (nominal) control. dalmatia came have closer ties italian peninsula, because of ability maintain contact sea (however, too, troubled slavic pirates). additionally, constantinople cut off rome, contributed growing cultural , political separation between 2 centers of european christendom.

control of slavic tribes nominal, retained own culture , language. however, slavic tribes of macedonia never formed own empire or state, , area switched between greek (byzantine), bulgarian, serbian , temporarily norman control. byzantines unable hellenize macedonia because progress north blocked bulgarian empire, , later serbian kingdom, both slavic states. however, byzantine culture nonetheless flowed further north, seen day bulgaria, republic of macedonia, , serbia part of orthodox world. in dalmatia, byzantine influence supplanted venice , rome, influence of byzantine culture persists.

slavic states
carantania

borders of slav territories under king samo s rule in 631

slavs had begun penetrate eastern alps before departure of lombards italy in 568 ad. 600, christian dioceses had heretofore still persisted in noricum throughout migration period had been extinguished, slovene historians take indication of slavic settlement in region. pagan slavs contended lombards control on drava valley , friuli until defeated lombards @ lauriana in 720, secured friuli lombard kingdom , christendom. slavs, too, able consolidate territory managed seize: in 623, unified slav tribes rebelled against avars weakened defeat @ constantinople, under rule of first historically known slavic polity - samo s tribal union. within generation of samo s death, inhabitants of carantania had established elective duchy in modern-day southern austria centered around roman ruin of virunum, lost independence in 745 due renewed avar threat, pledging fealty both bavaria , bishopric of salzburg. after, in 788, carantania within bavaria incorporated semifeudal frankish empire. carantanians participated in ljudevit s rebellion of 819, around time carantania began increasingly integrated bavaria proper , local slavic dukes disappeared history. however, of privileges , traditions of carantanians survived late middle ages.

bosnia

the charter of ban kulin oldest document of kind among south slavic languages , in saint petersburg museum.

modern knowledge of political situation in western balkans during middle ages unclear. upon arrival, slavs brought them tribal social structure fell apart , gave way feudalism frankish penetration region in late 9th century. around time slavs christianized. bosnia , herzegovina, because of geographic position , terrain, 1 of last areas go through process, presumably originated urban centers along dalmatian coast.

the high middle ages political circumstance led area of bosnia being contested between kingdom of hungary , byzantine empire. following shift of power between 2 in 12th century, bosnia found outside control of both , emerged independent state under rule of local bans.

kulin, though nominal vassal of hungary, first bosnian ruler de facto sovereign. kulin s rule marked start of controversy bosnian church. in response hungarian attempts use church politics regarding issue way reclaim sovereignty on bosnia, kulin held council of local church leaders renounce heresy , embraced catholicism in 1203. despite this, hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after kulin s death in 1204, waning after unsuccessful invasion in 1254.

map showing expansion of bosnian kingdom

bosnian history until 14th century marked power struggle between Šubić , kotromanić families. conflict came end in 1322, when stephen ii kotromanić became ban. time of death in 1353, successful in annexing territories north , west, zahumlje , parts of dalmatia. succeeded nephew tvrtko who, following prolonged struggle nobility , inter-family strife, gained full control of country in 1367. on 26 october 1377 tvrtko of bosnia crowned himself king of serbia, bosnia, pomorje, , western lands . based on archaeological evidence, crowned in mile near visoko in church built in time of stephen ii kotromanić s reign, buried alongside uncle stjepan ii. following death in 1391 however, bosnia fell long period of decline. ottoman empire had started conquest of europe , posed major threat balkans throughout first half of 15th century. finally, after decades of political , social instability, kingdom of bosnia ceased exist in 1463.

bulgaria

following collapse of old great bulgaria, asparukh s bulgars arrived in scythia minor in 680 , allied local slavic population form bulgaria. slavs accepted rulers bulgar khans retained significant autonomy. both peoples had protect country byzantines south , avar khanate north-west. byzantines aware of new threat defeated in battle of ongal , in 681 officially recognized bulgaria sovereign country, known nowadays first bulgarian empire. mid 9th century bulgaria expanded of slavic-populated areas of balkan peninsula in thrace, moesia, macedonia , dacia. khan omurtag (814–831) made administrative reform aimed centralization of country , deprived slavs of autonomy. result, slavic tribes north-west rebelled subjugated.

balkans, latter half of 9th century

following christianization of bulgaria , creation of glagolitic , cyrillic alphabets , formation of literary bulgarian language, bulgars , slavs merged bulgarian people. in 927 byzantines had recognize imperial title of bulgarian rulers (in bulgarian цар – tsar) , bulgarian patriarchate. bulgaria became cultural center of slavic orthodox world in 9th , 10th centuries. following destruction of first bulgarian empire byzantine emperor basil ii in 1018, bulgaria came under byzantine rule in 1018. second bulgarian empire secured independence byzantium in 1185, lasting until 1396 when conquered ottomans.

croatia

the duchy of croatia or littoral croatia defined struggles between western frankish empire , eastern byzantine empire. duchy managed break free frankish vassal ship somewhere in 850s , in 879 duchy under branimir received papal recognition state. duchy , pannonia croatia united under tomislav create kingdom.

zachlumia

duklja (zeta)

serbia

archaeological evidence suggests serbs part of 5-6th-centuries wave of slavs. according byzantine sources, white serbs settled lands of present-day serbia, montenegro , bosnia , herzegovina during rule of emperor heraclius (610-641). serbs became foederati byzantines , held frontiers vassalage (initially sclaviniae, later Župas), subsequently receiving greater autonomy višeslav (fl. 768-814) , full independence vlastimir (836-850). serbia byzantine ally throughout of middle ages , secured independence great diplomacy byzantium. in 14th century, serbian state under stefan dušan rose prominence in southern balkans, becoming serbian empire. declined following battle of kosovo in 1389 against ottomans.

ottoman period

so long non-slavic byzantine empire strong served effective buffer ottoman incursions southeastern europe , in turn lands of south slavs. power waned in face of conquests other powers, , rising turkish empire found 1 weakness after in southeastern europe.

the ottomans captured thessaloniki venetians in 1387. ottoman victory @ kosovo in 1389 marked end of serbian power in region, making possible ottoman expansion europe. stefan lazarević of serbia became vassal of ottoman empire. battle of nicopolis in 1396, regarded last large-scale crusade of middle ages, failed stop advance of victorious ottoman turks , put end second bulgarian empire.

modern era

ethnographic map of southern slavs in 1913, according j.ivanoff


montenegro