History Conscription_in_the_United_States

1 history

1.1 colonial 1862
1.2 civil war
1.3 world war i

1.3.1 opposition
1.3.2 conscientious objectors


1.4 interwar
1.5 world war ii

1.5.1 opposition
1.5.2 conscientious objectors


1.6 cold war
1.7 vietnam war
1.8 end of conscription
1.9 post-1980 draft registration

history

colonial 1862

in colonial times, thirteen colonies used militia system defense. colonial militia laws—and after independence of united states , various states—required able-bodied males enroll in militia, undergo minimum of military training, , serve limited periods of time in war or emergency. earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen service in particular campaigns. following system in essentials, continental congress in 1778 recommended states draft men militias 1 year s service in continental army; first national conscription irregularly applied , failed fill continental ranks.

for long-term operations, conscription used when volunteers or paid substitutes insufficient raise needed manpower. during american revolutionary war, states drafted men militia duty or fill state continental army units, central government did not have authority conscript except purposes of naval impressment. president james madison , secretary of war james monroe unsuccessfully attempted create national draft of 40,000 men during war of 1812. proposal fiercely criticized on house floor antiwar congressman daniel webster of new hampshire.

civil war

the united states first employed national conscription during american civil war. vast majority of troops volunteers; of 2,100,000 union soldiers, 2% draftees, , 6% substitutes paid draftees.

the confederacy had far fewer inhabitants union, , confederate president jefferson davis proposed first conscription act on march 28, 1862; passed law next month. resistance both widespread , violent, comparisons made between conscription , slavery.

both sides permitted conscripts hire substitutes serve in place. in union, many states , cities offered bounties , bonuses enlistment. arranged take credit against draft quota claiming freed slaves enlisted in union army.

although both sides resorted conscription, system did not work in either. confederate congress on april 16, 1862, passed act requiring military service 3 years males aged eighteen thirty-five not legally exempt; later extended obligation. u.s. congress followed militia act of 1862 authorizing militia draft within state when not meet quota volunteers. state-administered system failed in practice , in 1863 congress passed enrollment act, first genuine national conscription law, setting under union army elaborate machinery enrolling , drafting men between twenty , forty-five years of age. quotas assigned in each state, deficiencies in volunteers required met conscription.

still, men drafted provide substitutes, , until mid-1864 avoid service paying commutation money. many eligible men pooled money cover cost of 1 of them drafted. families used substitute provision select member should go army , stay home. other popular means of procuring substitute pay soldier period of enlistment expire - advantage of method army retain trained veteran in place of raw recruit. of 168,649 men procured union army through draft, 117,986 substitutes, leaving 50,663 had personal services conscripted. there evasion , overt resistance draft, , new york city draft riots in direct response draft , first large-scale resistance against draft in united states.

the problem of confederate desertion aggravated inequitable inclinations of conscription officers , local judges. 3 conscription acts of confederacy exempted categories, notably planter class, , enrolling officers , local judges practiced favoritism, accepting bribes. attempts deal issue frustrated conflict between state , local governments on 1 hand , national government of confederacy.

world war i

a world war era draft card.

in 1917 administration of president woodrow wilson decided rely on conscription, rather voluntary enlistment, raise military manpower world war when 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of initial 1 million target in first 6 weeks of war. 1 claimed motivation head off former president, theodore roosevelt, proposed raise volunteer division, upstage wilson. however, there no evidence roosevelt had popularity overcome unpopular war, also, since wilson had started second term in office former president s prospects substantial political gain seem dubious.

the selective service act of 1917 drawn remedy defects in civil war system and—by allowing exemptions dependency, essential occupations, , religious scruples—to place each man in proper niche in national war effort. act established liability military service of male citizens ; authorized selective draft of between 21 , 31 years of age (later 18 45); , prohibited forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. administration entrusted local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. these boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in national lottery , determined exemptions.

in 1917 10 million men registered. deemed inadequate, age ranges increased , exemptions reduced, , end of 1918 increased 24 million men registered 3 million inducted military services, little of resistance characterized civil war, huge campaign government build support war, , shut down newspapers , magazines published articles against war.

secretary of war newton baker draws first draft number on july 20, 1917.

the draft universal , included blacks on same terms whites, although served in different units. in 367,710 black americans drafted (13.0% of total), compared 2,442,586 white (86.9%). along general opposition american involvement in foreign conflict, southern farmers objected unfair conscription practices exempted members of upper class , industrial workers.

draft boards localized , based decisions on social class: poorest conscripted because considered expendable @ home. african-americans in particular disproportionately drafted, though conscripted laborers , not sent combat avoid tensions arise mixing races in military units. forms of resistance ranged peaceful protest violent demonstrations , humble letter-writing campaigns asking mercy radical newspapers demanding reform. common tactics dodging , desertion, , many communities sheltered , defended draft dodgers political heroes.

nearly half million immigrants drafted, forced military develop training procedures took ethnic differences account. military leaders invited progressive reformers , ethnic group leaders assist in formulating new military policies. military attempted socialize , americanize young immigrant recruits, not forcing angloconformity , showing remarkable sensitivity , respect ethnic values , traditions , concern morale of immigrant troops. sports activities, keeping immigrant groups together, newspapers in various languages, assistance of bilingual officers, , ethnic entertainment programs employed.

opposition

blessed peacemakers george bellows, masses, 1917

the conscription act of 1917 passed in june. conscripts court-martialed army if refused wear uniforms, bear arms, perform basic duties, or submit military authority. convicted objectors given long sentences of 20 years in fort leavenworth. in 1918 secretary baker created board of inquiry question conscientious objectors sincerity. military tribunals tried men found board insincere variety of offenses, sentencing 17 death, 142 life imprisonment, , 345 penal labor camps.

in 1917, number of radicals , anarchists, including emma goldman, challenged new draft law in federal court, arguing direct violation of thirteenth amendment s prohibition against slavery , involuntary servitude. supreme court unanimously upheld constitutionality of draft act in selective draft law cases on january 7, 1918. decision said constitution gave congress power declare war , raise , support armies. court, relying partly on vattel s law of nations, emphasized principle of reciprocal rights , duties of citizens:

it may not doubted conception of government , duty citizen includes reciprocal obligation of citizen render military service in case of need, , right compel it. more state proposition absolutely unnecessary in view of practical illustration afforded universal legislation effect in force.

conscription unpopular left-wing sectors @ start, many socialists jailed obstructing recruitment or enlistment service . famous eugene debs, head of socialist party of america, ran president in 1920 atlanta prison cell. had sentence commuted time served , released on december 25, 1921, president warren g. harding.

the industrial workers of world mobilized obstruct war effort through strikes in war-related industries , not registering.

conscientious objectors

conscientious objector (co) exemptions allowed amish, mennonites, quakers, , church of brethren only. other religious , political objectors forced participate. 64,700 men claimed conscientious objector status; local draft boards certified 57,000, of whom 30,000 passed physical , 21,000 inducted u.s. army. 80% of 21,000 decided abandon objection , take arms, 3,989 drafted objectors refused serve. belonged historically pacifist denominations, quakers, mennonites, , moravian brethren, few seventh-day adventists , jehovah s witnesses. 15% religious objectors non-pacifist churches.

ben salmon nationally known political activist encouraged men not register , refused comply draft procedures. rejected army review board proposal noncombatant farm work. sentenced 25 years in prison, again refused proposed desk job. pardoned , released in november 1920 dishonorable discharge .

interwar

the draft ended in 1918 army designed modern draft mechanism in 1926 , built based on military needs despite era of pacifism. working congress not, gathered cadre of officers nascent joint army-navy selective service committee, of whom commissioned based on social standing rather military experience. effort did not receive congressionally approved funding until 1934 when major general lewis b. hershey assigned organization. passage of conscription act opposed some, including dorothy day , george barry o toole, concerned such conscription not provide adequate protection rights of conscientious objectors. however, of hershey s work codified law selective training , service act of 1940 (stsa).

world war ii

by summer of 1940, germany conquered france, americans supported return of conscription. 1 national survey found 67% of respondents believed german-italian victory endanger united states, , 71% supported immediate adoption of compulsory military training young men . similarly, november 1942 survey of american high-school students found 69% favored compulsory postwar military training.

the world war system served model of world war ii. 1940 stsa instituted national conscription in peacetime, requiring registration of men between 21 , 35, selection 1 year s service national lottery. term of service extended 1 year in august 1941. after pearl harbor stsa further amended (december 19, 1941), extending term of service duration of war , 6 months , requiring registration of men 18 64 years of age. in massive draft of world war ii, 49 million men registered, 36 million classified, , 10 million inducted. president roosevelt s signing of stsa on september 16, 1940, began first peacetime draft in united states. established selective service system independent agency responsible identifying , inducting young men military service. roosevelt named hershey head selective service on july 31, 1941, remained until 1969. preparatory act came when other preparations, such increased training , equipment production, had not yet been approved. nevertheless, served basis conscription programs continue present. act set cap of 900,000 men in training @ given time , limited military service 12 months. amendment increased 18 more months in august 1941. later legislation on december 20, 1942 amended act require men 18 64 register, aged 20 44 being able induction. 18 , 19 year olds made liable induction , upper age limit draft reduced 37 beginning on november 13, 1942. service commitments inductees set @ length of war plus 6 months. manpower need increased during world war ii, draftees inducted army, navy, , marine corps.

by 1942, selective service system moved away administrative selection more 6,000 local boards system of lottery selection. rather filling quotas local selection, boards ensured proper processing of men selected national lottery. on december 5, 1942, presidential executive order 9279 made men ages of 18 37 not voluntarily enlist if had not been drafted, providing protection nation s home front manpower pool. paul v. mcnutt, head of war manpower commission, estimated changes increase ratio of men drafted 1 out of 9 1 out of five. commission s goal have 9 million men in armed forces end of 1943. facilitated massive requirement of 200,000 men per month , remain standard length of war. world war ii draft operated 1940 until 1947 when legislative authorization expired without further extension congress. during time, more 10 million men had been inducted military service. expiration, no inductions occurred in 1947. however, sss remained intact.

opposition

scattered opposition encountered in northern cities african-americans protested system. young nation of islam @ forefront, many black muslims jailed refusing draft, , leader elijah muhammed sentenced federal prison 5 years inciting draft resistance. organized draft resistance developed in japanese american internment camps, groups heart mountain fair play committee refused serve unless , families released. 300 nisei men 8 of ten war relocation authority camps arrested , stood trial felony draft evasion; sentenced federal prison. american communists opposed war until germany attacked soviet union in june 1941, whereupon became supporters.

conscientious objectors

of more 72,000 men registering conscientious objectors (co), 52,000 received co status. of these, on 25,000 entered military in noncombatant roles, 12,000 went civilian work camps, , 6,000 went prison. draft evasion accounted 4% of total inducted. 373,000 alleged evaders investigated on 16,000 being imprisoned.

cold war

the second peacetime draft began passage of selective service act of 1948 after stsa expired. new law required men, ages 18 26, register. created system doctor draft aimed @ inducting health professionals military service. unless otherwise exempted or deferred, these men called 21 months of active duty , 5 years of reserve duty service. congress further tweaked act in 1950 although post–world war ii surplus of military manpower left little need draft calls until truman s declaration of national emergency in december 1950. 20,348 men inducted in 1948 , 9,781 in 1949.

between korean war s outbreak in june 1950 , armistice agreement in 1953, selective service inducted on 1.5 million men. 1.3 million volunteered, choosing navy or air force. congress passed universal military training , service act in 1951 meet demands of war. lowered induction age 18½ , extended active-duty service commitments 24 months. despite combat failures , later stalemate in korea, draft has been credited playing vital role in turning tide of war. february 1953 gallup poll showed 70 percent of americans surveyed felt sss handled draft fairly. notably, gallup reported 64 percent of demographic group including draft age men (males 21 29) believed draft fair.

to increase equity in system, president dwight d. eisenhower signed executive order on july 11, 1953, ended paternity deferment married men. in large part, change in draft served purposes of burgeoning cold war. program had barely passed congressional muster during fearful prelude world war ii, more robust draft continued fears focused on soviet threat. nevertheless, dissenting voices in congress continued appeal history of voluntary american military service preferable democracy. korean war first time form of student deferment used. during korean war student carrying @ least twelve semester hours spared until end of current semester.

the united states breathed easier korean war armistice on july 27, 1953; however, technology brought new promises , threats. u.s. air , nuclear power fueled eisenhower doctrine of massive retaliation . strategy demanded more machines , fewer foot soldiers, draft slipped burner. however, head of sss, maj. gen. hershey, urged caution fearing conflict looming in vietnam. in may 1953, told state directors possible keep sss alive in order meet upcoming needs.

following 1953 korean war armistice, congress passed reserve forces act of 1955 aim of improving national guard , federal reserve component readiness while constraining use president. towards end, mandated six-year service commitment, in combination of reserve , active duty time, every line military member regardless of means of entry. meanwhile, sss kept alive devising , managing complex system of deferments swelling pool of candidates during period of shrinking requirements. greatest challenge draft came not protesters rather lobbyists seeking additional deferments constituency groups such scientists , farmers.

government leaders felt potential draft critical element in maintaining constant flow of volunteers. on numerous occasions gen. hershey told congress every man drafted, 3 or 4 more scared volunteering. assuming assessment accurate, mean on 11 million men volunteered service because of draft between january 1954 , april 1975.

the policy of using draft club force voluntary enlistment unique in u.s. history. previous drafts had not aimed @ encouraging individuals sign in order gain preferential placement or less dangerous postings. however, incremental buildup of vietnam without clear threat country bolstered this. estimates suggest conscription encompassed one-third of eligible men during period of 1965–69. group represented without exemption or resources avoid military service. during active combat phase, possibility of avoiding combat selecting service , military specialty led many 4 out of 11 eligible men enlist. military relied upon draft-induced volunteerism make quotas, army, accounted 95 percent of inductees during vietnam. example, defense recruiting reports show 34% of recruits in 1964 50% in 1970 indicated joined avoid placement uncertainty via draft. these rates dwindled 24% in 1972 , 15% in 1973 after change lottery system. accounting other factors, can argued 60 percent of served throughout vietnam war did directly or indirectly because of draft.

in addition, deferments provided incentive men follow pursuits considered useful state. process, known channeling, helped push men educational, occupational, , family choices might not otherwise have pursued. undergraduate degrees valued. graduate work had varying value on time, though technical , religious training received near constant support. war industry support in form of teaching, research, or skilled labor received deferred or exempt status. finally, marriage , family exempted because of positive social consequences. included using presidential orders extend exemptions again fathers , others. channeling seen means of preempting loss of country s best , brightest had historically joined , died in war.

in extended period of military conscription of u.s. males during major peacetime period, draft continued on more limited basis during late 1950s , 1960s. while far smaller percentage of eligible males conscripted compared war periods, draftees law served in army 2 years. elvis presley , willie mays 2 of famous people drafted during period.

public protests in united states few during korean war. however, percentage of co exemptions inductees grew 1.5% compared rate of 0.5% in past 2 wars. justice department investigated more 80,000 draft evasion cases.

vietnam war

president kennedy s decision send military troops vietnam advisors signal selective service director lewis b. hershey needed visit oval office. visit emerged 2 wishes of jfk regard conscription. first names of married men children should occupy bottom of callup list. above them should names of men married. presidential policy, however, not formally encoded selective service status. men fit these categories became known kennedy husbands. when president lyndon johnson decided rescind kennedy policy, there last-minute rush altar thousands of american couples.

many rank-and-file anti-conscription protesters had been allied national committee sane nuclear policy. completion in 1963 of limited nuclear test ban treaty left mass of undirected youth in search of cause. syndicated cartoonist al capp portrayed them s.w.i.n.e, (students wildly indignant everything). catalyst protest reconnection 1964 gulf of tonkin resolution.

consequently, there opposition draft before major u.s. involvement in vietnam war began. large cohort of baby boomers became eligible military service during vietnam war responsible steep increase in number of exemptions , deferments, college students. besides being able avoid draft, college graduates volunteered military service (primarily commissioned officers) had better chance of securing preferential posting compared less-educated inductees.

president gerald ford announces amnesty draft evaders @ white house, washington, d.c., in 1974.

as u.s. troop strength in south vietnam increased, more young men drafted service there, , many of still @ home sought means of avoiding draft. since 15,000 national guard , reserve soldiers sent south vietnam, enlistment in guard or reserves became popular means of avoiding serving in war zone. meet more stringent enlistment standards, service in air force, navy, or coast guard means of reducing chances of being killed. vocations ministry , rabbinate soared, because divinity students exempt draft. doctors , draft board members found being pressured relatives or family friends exempt potential draftees.

the marriage deferment ended on august 26, 1965. around 3:10pm president johnson signed order allowing draft of men married after midnight day, around 5pm announced change first time.

some conscientious objectors objected war based on theory of war. 1 of these, stephen spiro, convicted of avoiding draft, given suspended sentence of 5 years. later pardoned president gerald ford.

there 8,744,000 servicemembers between 1964 , 1975, of whom 3,403,000 deployed southeast asia. pool of approximately 27 million, draft raised 2,215,000 men military service (in united states, south vietnam, , elsewhere) during vietnam war era. majority of servicemembers deployed south vietnam volunteers, though hundreds of thousands of men opted join army, air force, navy, , coast guard (for 3 or 4 year terms of enlistment) rather risk being drafted, serve 2 years, , have no choice on military occupational specialty (mos).

of 16 million men not engaged in active military service, 57% exempted (typically because of jobs including other military service), deferred (usually educational reasons), or disqualified (usually physical , mental deficiencies criminal records including draft violations). requirements obtaining , maintaining educational deferment changed several times in late 1960s. several years, students required take annual qualification test. in 1967 educational deferments changed graduate students. starting graduate studies in fall of 1967 given 2 semester deferments becoming eligible in june of 1968. further along in graduate study entered prior summer of 1967 continue receive deferment until completed studies. peace corps volunteers no longer given deferments , induction left discretion of local boards. boards allowed peace corps volunteers complete 2 years assignment before inducting them service. on december 1, 1969, lottery held establish draft priority born between 1944 , 1950. high number no longer had concerned draft. 500,000 men disqualified criminal records, less 10,000 of them convicted of draft violations. finally, many 100,000 draft eligible men fled country.

end of conscription

jeffrey mellinger in 1972; mellinger last drafted u.s. nco remain in army before retiring in 2011.



jeffrey mellinger in 2005

during 1968 presidential election, richard nixon campaigned on promise end draft. had first become interested in idea of all-volunteer army during time out of office, based upon paper martin anderson of columbia university. nixon saw ending draft effective way undermine anti-vietnam war movement, since believed affluent youths stop protesting war once own probability of having fight in gone. there opposition all-volunteer notion both department of defense , congress, nixon took no immediate action towards ending draft in presidency.

instead, gates commission formed, headed thomas s. gates, jr., former secretary of defense in eisenhower administration. gates opposed all-volunteer army idea, changed mind during course of 15-member commission s work. gates commission issued report in february 1970, describing how adequate military strength maintained without having conscription. existing draft law expiring @ end of june 1971, department of defense , nixon administration decided draft needed continue @ least time. in february 1971, administration requested of congress two-year extension of draft, june 1973.

senatorial opponents of war wanted reduce one-year extension, or eliminate draft altogether, or tie draft renewal timetable troop withdrawal vietnam; senator mike gravel of alaska took forceful approach, trying filibuster draft renewal legislation, shut down conscription, , directly force end war. senators supporting nixon s war efforts supported bill, though had qualms ending draft. after prolonged battle in senate, in september 1971 cloture achieved on filibuster , draft renewal bill approved. meanwhile, military pay increased incentive attract volunteers, , television advertising u.s. army began. end of active u.s. ground participation in vietnam, december 1972 saw last men conscripted, born in 1952 , reported duty in june 1973. on february 2, 1972, drawing held determine draft priority numbers men born in 1953, in 1973 announced secretary of defense melvin laird no further draft orders issued. in march 1973, 1974, , 1975, selective service assigned draft priority numbers men born in 1954, 1955, , 1956, in case draft extended, never was.

command sergeant major jeff mellinger, believed last drafted enlisted ranked soldier still on active duty, retired in 2011.

chief warrant officer 5 ralph e. rigby, last vietnam war-era drafted soldier of warrant officer rank, retired army in november 10, 2014 after 42-year career.

post-1980 draft registration

on july 2, 1980, president carter issued presidential proclamation 4771 , re-instated requirement young men register selective service system. @ time required males, born on or after january 1, 1960, register selective service system. in category male u.s. citizens , male immigrant non-citizens between ages of 18 , 25, required register within 30 days of 18th birthday if not eligible join military.

the selective service system describes mission serve emergency manpower needs of military conscripting untrained manpower, or personnel professional health care skills, if directed congress , president in national crisis . registration forms available either online or @ u.s. post office.

the selective service registration form states failure register felony punishable 5 years imprisonment or $250,000 fine. in practice, no 1 has been prosecuted failure comply draft registration since 1986, in part because prosecutions of draft resisters proved counter-productive government, , in part because of difficulty of proving noncompliance law knowing , wilful . in interviews published in u.s. news & world report in may 2016, current , former selective service system officials said in 1988, department of justice , selective service agreed suspend further prosecutions of nonregistrants. many men not register @ all, register late, or change addresses without notifying selective service system. registration requirement employment federal government , states, receiving state benefits such driver s licenses. refusing register can cause loss of eligibility federal financial aid college.