Culture_and_society Gaelic_Ireland

1 culture , society

1.1 religion , mythology

1.1.1 paganism
1.1.2 christianity


1.2 social , political structure
1.3 law

1.3.1 marriage, women , children


1.4 settlements , architecture
1.5 economy
1.6 transport
1.7 dress
1.8 warfare
1.9 arts

1.9.1 visual art
1.9.2 literature
1.9.3 music , dance


1.10 sport
1.11 assemblies

culture , society

gaelic culture , society centred around clan or fine, , landscape , history of ireland wrought inter-clan relationships, marriages, friendships, wars, vendettas, trading, , on. gaelic ireland had rich oral culture , appreciation of deeper , intellectual pursuits. filí , draoithe (druids) held in high regard during pagan times , orally passed down history , traditions of people. later, many of spiritual , intellectual tasks passed on christian monks, after said religion prevailed 5th century onwards. however, filí continued hold high position. poetry, music, storytelling, literature , other art forms highly prized , cultivated in both pagan , christian gaelic ireland. hospitality, bonds of kinship , fulfilment of social , ritual responsibilities highly important.

like britain, gaelic ireland consisted not of 1 single unified kingdom, several. main kingdoms ulaid (ulster), mide (meath), laigin (leinster), muma (munster, consisting of iarmuman, tuadmumain , desmumain), connacht, bréifne (breffny), in tuaiscert (the north), , airgíalla (oriel). each of these overkingdoms built upon lordships known túatha (singular: túath). law tracts 700s describe hierarchy of kings: kings of túath subject kings of several túatha again subject regional overkings. before 8th century these overkingdoms had begun replace túatha basic sociopolitical unit.

religion , mythology

the tuatha dé danann depicted in john duncan s riders of sidhe (1911)



a reconstruction of irish christian chapel , high cross


paganism

before christianization, gaelic irish polytheistic or pagan. had many gods , goddesses, have parallels in pantheons of other european nations. 2 groups of supernatural beings appear throughout irish mythology—the tuatha dé danann , fomorians—are believed represent gaelic pantheon. animists, believing aspects of natural world contained spirits, , these spirits communicated with. burial practices—which included burying food, weapons, , ornaments dead—suggest belief in life after death. have equated afterlife otherworld realms known magh meall , tír na nÓg in irish mythology. there 4 main religious festivals each year, marking traditional 4 divisions of year – samhain, imbolc, bealtaine , lughnasadh.

the mythology of ireland passed down orally, of written down irish monks, christianized , modified extent. large body of work split 3 overlapping cycles: mythological cycle, ulster cycle, , fenian cycle. first cycle pseudo-history describes how ireland, people , society came be. second cycle tells of lives , deaths of ulaidh heroes such cúchulainn. third cycle tells of exploits of fionn mac cumhaill , fianna. there number of tales not fit these cycles – includes immrama , echtrai, tales of voyages otherworld .

christianity

social , political structure

a scene image of irelande (1581) showing chieftain @ feast being entertained fili , harper

in gaelic ireland each person belonged agnatic kin-group known fine (plural: finte). large group of related people supposedly descended 1 progenitor through male forebears. headed male chieftain, known in old irish cennfine or toísech (plural: toísig). although these groups based on blood kinship, included fostered group , accepted other reasons.

nicholls suggests better thought of akin modern-day corporation. within each fine, family descended common great grandparent called derbfine (modern form dearbhfhine), lit. close clan . cland (modern form clann) referred children of nuclear family.

succession chieftainship or kingship through tanistry. when man became chieftain or king, relative elected deputy or tanist (irish: tánaiste, plural tanaistí). when chieftain or king died, tanist automatically succeed him. tanist had share same great-grandfather predecessor (i.e. of same derbfine) , elected freemen shared same great-grandfather. tanistry meant kingship went whichever relative deemed fitting. there more 1 tanist @ time , succeed each other in order of seniority. anglo-norman lordships later adopted tanistry irish.

gaelic ireland divided hierarchy of territories ruled hierarchy of kings or chiefs. smallest territory túath (plural: túatha), typically territory of single kin-group. ruled rí túaithe (king of túath) or toísech túaithe (leader of túath). several túatha formed mór túath (overkingdom), ruled rí mór túath or ruirí (overking). several mór túatha formed cóiced (province), ruled rí cóicid or rí ruirech (provincial king). in middle ages túatha main political unit, on time subsumed bigger conglomerate territories , became less important politically.

gaelic society structured hierarchically, further hierarchy having more privileges, wealth , power further down.

the top social layer sóernemed, included kings, tanists, chieftains, highly skilled poets (fili), clerics, , immediate families. roles of fili included reciting traditional lore, eulogizing king , satirizing injustices within kingdom. before christianization of ireland, group included druids (druí) , vates (fáith). druids combined roles of priest, judge, scholar, poet, physician, , religious teacher, while vates oracles.
below dóernemed, included professionals such jurists (brithem), physicians, skilled craftsmen, skilled musicians, scholars, , on. master in particular profession known ollam (modern spelling: ollamh). various professions—including law, poetry, medicine, history , genealogy—were associated particular families , positions became hereditary. since poets, jurists , doctors depended on patronage of ruling families, end of gaelic order brought demise.
below freemen owned land , cattle (for example bóaire).
below freemen did not own land or cattle, or owned little.
below unfree, included serfs , slaves. slaves typically criminals (debt slaves) or prisoners of war. slavery , serfdom inherited, though slavery in ireland had died out 1200.
the warrior bands known fianna lived apart society. fian typically composed of young men had not yet come inheritance of land. member of fian called fénnid , leader of fian rígfénnid. geoffrey keating, in 17th-century history of ireland, says during winter fianna quartered , fed nobility, during time keep order on behalf. during summer, bealtaine samhain, beholden live hunting food , hides sell.

although distinct, these ranks not utterly exclusive castes of india. possible rise or sink 1 rank another. rising upward achieved number of ways, such gaining wealth, gaining skill in department, qualifying learned profession, showing conspicuous valour, or performing service community. example of latter person choosing become briugu (hospitaller). briugu had have house open guests, included feeding no matter how big group. briugu fulfill these duties, allowed more land , privileges, lost if ever refused guests.

a freeman further himself becoming client of 1 or more lords. lord made client grant of property (i.e. livestock or land) and, in return, client owed lord yearly payments of food , fixed amounts of work. clientship agreement last until lord s death. if client died, heirs carry on agreement. system of clientship enabled social mobility client increase wealth until afford clients of own, becoming lord. clientship practised between nobles, established hierarchies of homage , political support.

law


ruins of o davoren law school @ cahermacnaghten, county clare

gaelic law passed down orally, written down in old irish during period 600–900 ad. collection of oral , written laws known fénechas or, in english, brehon law(s). brehons (old irish: brithem, plural brithemain) jurists in gaelic ireland. becoming brehon took many years of training , office was, or became, largely hereditary. legal cases contested privately between opposing parties, brehons acting arbitrators.

offences against people , property settled offender paying compensation victims. although such offence required compensation, law made distinction between intentional , unintentional harm, , between murder , manslaughter. if offender did not pay outright, property seized until did so. should offender unable pay, family responsible doing so. should family unable or unwilling pay, responsibility broaden wider kin-group. hence, has been argued people own police . acts of violence settled payment of compensation known éraic fine; gaelic equivalent of welsh galanas , germanic weregild. if free person murdered, éraic equal 21 cows, regardless of victim s rank in society. each member of murder victim s agnatic kin-group received payment based on closeness victim, status, , forth. there separate payments kin-group of victim s mother, , victim s foster-kin.

execution seems have been rare , carried out last resort. if murderer unable/unwilling pay éraic , handed victim s family, might kill him if wished should nobody intervene paying éraic. habitual or particularly serious offenders might expelled kin-group , territory. such people became outlaws (with no protection law) , sheltered him became liable crimes. if still haunted territory , continued crimes there, proclaimed in public assembly , after might lawfully kill him.

each person had honour-price, varied depending on rank in society. honour-price paid them if honour violated offences. of higher rank had higher honour-price. however, offence against property of poor man (who ill afford it), punished more harshly similar offence upon wealthy man. clergy more harshly punished laity. when layman had paid fine go through probationary period , regain standing, clergyman never regain standing.

most of laws pre-christian in origin. these secular laws existed in parallel, , in conflict, church law. although brehons dealt legal cases, kings have been able deliver judgments also, unclear how have had rely on brehons. kings had own brehons deal cases involving king s own rights , give him legal advice. unlike other kingdoms in europe, gaelic kings—by own authority—could not enact new laws wished , not above law . could, however, enact temporary emergency laws. through these emergency powers church attempted change gaelic law.

the law texts take great care define social status, rights , duties went status, , relationships between people. example, chieftains had take responsibility members of fine, acting surety of deeds , making sure debts paid. responsible unmarried women after death of fathers.

marriage, women , children

irish gaels, c. 1575

ancient irish culture patriarchal. brehon law excepted women ordinary course of law that, in general, every woman had have male guardian. however, women had legal capacity. 8th century, preferred form of marriage 1 between social equals, under woman technically legally dependent on husband , had half honor price, exercise considerable authority in regard transfer of property. such women called women of joint dominion . historian patrick weston joyce write that, relative other european countries of time, free women in gaelic ireland held position , social , property rights in respects, quite on level men .

gaelic irish society patrilineal, land being owned men , inherited sons. when man had no sons land pass daughters, , lifetimes. upon deaths, land redistributed among father s male relations. under brehon law, rather inheriting land, daughters had assigned them number of father s cattle marriage-portion. seems that, throughout middle ages, gaelic irish kept many of marriage laws , traditions separate of church. under gaelic law, married women hold property independent of husbands, link maintained between married women , own families, couples divorce or separate, , men have concubines (which lawfully bought). these laws differed of contemporary europe , church law.

the lawful age of marriage fifteen girls , eighteen boys, respective ages @ fosterage ended. upon marriage, families of bride , bridegroom expected contribute match. custom bridegroom , family pay coibche (modern spelling: coibhche) , bride allowed share of it. if marriage ended owing fault of husband coibche kept wife , family, if fault lay wife coibche returned. custom bride receive spréid (modern spelling: spréidh) family (or foster family) upon marriage. returned if marriage ended through divorce or death of husband. later, spréid seems have been converted dowry. women seek divorce/separation men and, when obtained on behalf, kept property had brought husband during marriage. trial marriages seem have been popular among rich , powerful, , has been argued cohabitation before marriage must have been acceptable. seems wife of chieftain entitled share of chief s authority on territory. led gaelic irish wives wielding great deal of political power.

before norman invasion, common priests , monks have wives. remained unchanged after norman invasion, despite protests bishops , archbishops. authorities classed such women priests concubines , there evidence formal contract of concubinage existed between priests , women. however, unlike other concubines, seem have been treated wives were.

in gaelic ireland kind of fosterage common, whereby (for length of time) children left in care of other fine members, namely mother s family, preferably brother. may have been used strengthen family ties or political bonds. foster parents beholden teach foster children or have them taught. foster parents had done duties entitled supported foster children in old age (if in need , had no children of own). divorce, gaelic law again differed of europe , church law in giving legal standing both legitimate , illegitimate children.

settlements , architecture

a reconstructed roundhouse , ráth @ craggaunowen, county clare

for of gaelic period, dwellings , farm buildings circular conical thatched roofs (see roundhouse). square , rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, , 14th or 15th century had replaced round buildings completely. in areas, buildings made of stone. in others, built of timber, wattle , daub, or mix of materials. ancient , medieval stone buildings of dry stone construction. buildings have had glass windows. among wealthy, common women have own apartment called grianan (anglicized greenan ) in sunniest part of homestead.

the dwellings of freemen , families surrounded circular rampart called ringfort . there 2 main kinds of ringfort. ráth earthen ringfort, averaging 30m diameter, dry outside ditch. cathair or caiseal stone ringfort. ringfort typically have enclosed family home, small farm buildings or workshops, , animal pens. date period 500–1000 ce , there evidence of large-scale ringfort desertion @ end of first millennium. remains of between 30,000 , 40,000 lasted 19th century mapped ordnance survey ireland. kind of native dwelling crannóg, roundhouses built on artificial islands in lakes.

there few nucleated settlements in gaelic areas. however, after 5th century monasteries became heart of small monastic towns . 10th century norse-gaelic ports of dublin, wexford, cork , limerick had grown substantial settlements. @ time, perhaps response viking raids, many of irish round towers built.

in fifty years before norman invasion (1069), term castle (old irish: caistél/caislén) appears in gaelic writings, although there no surviving examples of pre-norman castles. after invasion, normans built motte-and-bailey castles in areas occupied, of converted ringforts. 1300 mottes, in frontier areas, had been built gaelic irish in imitation . normans gradually replaced wooden motte-and-baileys stone castles , tower houses. tower houses free-standing multi-storey stone towers surrounded wall (see bawn) , ancillary buildings. gaelic families had begun build own tower houses 15th century. many 7000 may have been built, rare in areas little norman settlement or contact. concentrated in counties limerick , clare lacking in ulster, except area around strangford lough.

in gaelic law, sanctuary called maighin digona surrounded each person s dwelling. maighin digona s size varied according owner s rank. in case of bóaire stretched far he, while sitting @ house, cast cnairsech (variously described spear or sledgehammer). owner of maighin digona offer protection fleeing pursuers, have bring person justice lawful means.

economy

gaelic ireland involved in trade britain , mainland europe ancient times, , trade increased on centuries. tacitus, example, wrote in 1st century of ireland s harbours known romans through commerce. there many passages in irish literature mention luxury items imported foreign lands, , fair of carman in leinster included market of foreign traders. in middle ages main exports textiles such wool , linen while main imports luxury items.

money seldom used in gaelic society; instead, goods , services exchanged other goods , services. economy pastoral one, based on livestock (cows, sheep, pigs, goats, etc.) , products. cattle main element in irish pastoral economy , main form of wealth, providing milk, butter, cheese, meat, fat, hides, , forth. highly mobile form of wealth , economic resource , moved safer locality in time of war or trouble . nobility owned great herds of cattle had herdsmen , guards. sheep, goats , pigs valuable resource had lesser role in irish pastoralism.

horticulture practised; main crops being oats, wheat , barley, although flax grown making linen.

transhumance practised, whereby people moved livestock higher pastures in summer , lower pastures in cooler months. summer pasture called buaile (anglicized booley) , noteworthy irish word boy (buachaill) meant herdsman. many moorland areas shared common summer pasturage people of whole parish or barony .

a horse rider book of kells


transport

gaelic ireland furnished roads , bridges. bridges typically wooden , in places roads laid wood , stone. there 5 main roads leading tara: slíghe asail, slíghe chualann, slíghe dála, slíghe mór , slíghe midluachra.

horses 1 of main means of long-distance transport. although horseshoes , reins used, gaelic irish did not use saddles, stirrups or spurs. every man trained spring ground on of horse (an ech-léim or steed-leap ) , urged-on , guided horses rod having hooked goad @ end.

two-wheeled , four-wheeled chariots (singular carbad) used in ireland ancient times, both in private life , in war. big enough 2 people, made of wickerwork , wood, , had decorated hoods. wheels spoked, shod round iron, , 3 4 , half feet high. chariots drawn horses or oxen, horse-drawn chariots being more common among chiefs , military men. war chariots furnished scythes , spikes, of ancient gauls , britons, mentioned in literature.

boats used in gaelic ireland include canoes, currachs, sailboats , irish galleys. ferryboats used cross wide rivers , mentioned in brehon laws subject strict regulations. owned individuals , common property of living round ferry. large boats used trade mainland europe.

dress

irish gaels in painting 16th century

throughout middle ages, common clothing amongst gaelic irish consisted of brat (a woollen semi circular cloak) worn on léine (a loose-fitting, long-sleeved tunic made of linen). men léine reached ankles hitched means of crios (pronounced kriss ) type of woven belt. léine hitched knee level. (gaelicattire.com) women wore léine @ full length. men wore tight-fitting trews (gaelic triúbhas) otherwise went bare-legged. brat thrown on both shoulders or on one. brat fastened dealg (brooch), men wearing dealg @ shoulders , women @ chests. ionar (a short, tight-fitting jacket) became popular later on. in topographia hibernica, written during 1180s, gerald de barri wrote irish commonly wore hoods @ time (perhaps forming part of brat), while edmund spenser wrote in 1580s brat (in general) main item of clothing. gaelic clothing not appear have been influenced outside styles.

women invariably grew hair long and, in other european cultures, custom common among men. said gaelic irish took great pride in long hair—for example, person forced pay heavy fine of 2 cows shaving man s head against will. women, long hair seen mark of beauty. sometimes, wealthy men , women braid hair , fasten hollow golden balls braids. style popular among medieval gaelic men glib (short on except long, thick lock of hair towards front of head). band or ribbon around forehead typical way of holding 1 s hair in place. wealthy, band thin , flexible band of burnished gold, silver or findruine. when anglo-normans , english colonized ireland, hair length came signify 1 s allegiance. irishmen cut hair short deemed forsaking irish heritage. likewise, english colonists grew hair long @ deemed giving in irish life.

gaelic men typically wore beard , mustache, , seen dishonourable gaelic man have no facial hair. beard styles varied – long forked beard , rectangular mesopotamian-style beard fashionable @ times.

warfare


a cattle raid shown in image of irelande (1581)



a fantasy painting showing legendary hero cúchulainn in battle

warfare common in gaelic ireland, territories fought supremacy against each other , (later) against anglo-normans. champion warfare common theme in irish mythology. in middle ages able-bodied men, apart learned , clergy, eligible military service on behalf of king or chief. throughout middle ages , time after, outsiders wrote style of irish warfare differed deemed norm in western europe. gaelic irish preferred hit-and-run raids (the crech), involved catching enemy unaware. if worked seize valuables (mainly livestock) , potentially valuable hostages, burn crops, , escape. cattle raid called táin bó in gaelic literature. although hit-and-run raiding preferred tactic in medieval times, there pitched battles. @ least 11th century, kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known troops of household , given houses , land on king s mensal land. these well-equipped professional soldiers made of infantry , cavalry. reign of brian boru, irish kings taking large armies on campaign on long distances , using naval forces in tandem land forces.

a typical medieval irish army included light infantry, heavy infantry , cavalry. bulk of army made-up of light infantry called ceithern (anglicized kern ). ceithern wandered ireland offering services hire , wielded swords, skenes (a kind of long knife), short spears, bows , shields. cavalry made-up of king or chieftain , close relatives. rode without saddles wore armour , iron helmets , wielded swords, skenes , long spears or lances. 1 kind of irish cavalry hobelar. after norman invasion there emerged kind of heavy infantry called gallóglaigh (anglicized gallo[w]glass ). scottish mercenaries appeared in 13th century, 15th century large túatha had own hereditary force of irish gallóglaigh. anglo-norman lordships began using gallóglaigh in imitation of irish. wore mail , iron helmets , wielded sparth axes, claymores, , spears or lances. gallóglaigh furnished retreating plunderers moving line of defence horsemen make short, sharp charges, , behind retreat when pursued . armour made them less nimble, planted @ strategic spots along line of retreat. kern, horsemen , gallóglaigh had lightly-armed servants carry weapons battle.

warriors rallied battle blowing horns , warpipes. according gerald de barri (in 12th century), did not wear armour, deemed burdensome wear , brave , honourable fight without it. instead, ordinary soldiers fought semi-naked , carried weapons , small round shield—spenser wrote these shields covered leather , painted in bright colours. kings , chiefs went battle wearing helmets adorned eagle feathers. ordinary soldiers, thick hair served helmet, wore simple helmets made animal hides.

arts
visual art

artwork ireland s gaelic period found on pottery, jewellery, weapons, drinkware, tableware, stone carvings , illuminated manuscripts. other kinds of celtic art, irish art 300 bce part of wider style, developed in west central europe. 600 ce, after christianization of ireland had begun, style melding irish, mediterranean , germanic anglo-saxon elements emerged, , spread britain , mainland europe hiberno-scottish mission. known insular art or hiberno-saxon art, continued in form in ireland until 12th century, although viking invasions ended golden age . surviving works of insular art either made monks or made monasteries, exception of brooches, made , used both clergy , laity. examples of insular art ireland include book of kells, muiredach s high cross, tara brooch, ardagh hoard derrynaflan chalice, , late cross of cong, uses viking styles.

literature

music , dance

although gerald de barri had negative view of irish, in topographia hibernica (1188) conceded more skilled @ playing music other nation had seen. claimed 2 main instruments harp , tabor (see bodhrán), music fast , lively, , songs began , ended b-flat. in history of irish music (1905), w. h. grattan flood wrote there @ least ten instruments in general use gaelic irish. these cruit (a small harp) , clairseach (a bigger harp typically 30 strings), timpan (a small string instrument played bow or plectrum), feadan (a fife), buinne (an oboe or flute), guthbuinne (a bassoon-type horn), bennbuabhal , corn (hornpipes), cuislenna (bagpipes – see great irish warpipes), stoc , sturgan (clarions or trumpets), , cnamha (castanets). mentions fiddle being used in 8th century.

sport

assemblies

the summit of hill of tara

as mentioned before, gaelic ireland split many clann territories , kingdoms called túath (plural: túatha). although there no central government or parliament , number of local, regional , national gatherings held. these combined features of assemblies , fairs.

in ireland highest of these feis @ teamhair na rí (tara), held every third samhain. gathering of leading men of whole island – kings, lords, chieftains, druids, judges etc. below óenach (modern spelling: aonach). these regional or provincial gatherings open everyone. examples include held @ tailtin each lughnasadh, , held @ uisneach each bealtaine. main purpose of these gatherings promulgate , reaffirm laws – read aloud in public might not forgotten, , changes in them explained present.

each túath or clann had 2 assemblies of own. these cuirmtig, open clann members, , dal (a term later adopted irish parliament – see dáil Éireann), open clann chiefs. each clann had further assembly called tocomra, in clann chief (toísech, modern taoiseach) , deputy/successor (tanaiste) elected.