Functionalism Ritual

nineteenth century armchair anthropologists concerned basic question of how religion originated in human history. in twentieth century conjectural histories replaced new concerns around question of these beliefs , practices did societies, regardless of origin. in view, religion universal, , while content might vary enormously, served basic functions such provision of prescribed solutions basic human psychological , social problems, expressing central values of society. bronislaw malinowski used concept of function address questions of individual psychological needs; a. r. radcliffe-brown, in contrast, looked function (purpose) of institution or custom in preserving or maintaining society whole. disagreed relationship of anxiety ritual.

kowtowing in court, china, before 1889

malinowski argued ritual non-technical means of addressing anxiety activities dangerous elements beyond technical control: magic expected , found whenever man comes unbridgeable gap, hiatus in knowledge or in powers of practical control, , yet has continue in pursuit. . radcliffe-brown in contrast, saw ritual expression of common interest symbolically representing community, , anxiety felt if ritual not performed. george c. homans sought resolve these opposing theories differentiating between primary anxieties felt people lack techniques secure results, , secondary (or displaced) anxiety felt have not performed rites meant allay primary anxiety correctly. homans argued purification rituals may conducted dispel secondary anxiety.

a.r. radcliffe-brown argued ritual should distinguished technical action, viewing structured event: ritual acts differ technical acts in having in instances expressive or symbolic element in them. edmund leach, in contrast, saw ritual , technical action less separate structural types of activity , more spectrum: actions fall place on continuous scale. @ 1 extreme have actions entirely profane, entirely functional, technique pure , simple; @ other have actions entirely sacred, strictly aesthetic, technically non-functional. between these 2 extremes have great majority of social actions partake partly of 1 sphere , partly of other. point of view technique , ritual, profane , sacred, not denote types of action aspects of kind of action.

as social control

balinese rice terraces regulated through ritual.

the functionalist model viewed ritual homeostatic mechanism regulate , stabilize social institutions adjusting social interactions, maintaining group ethos, , restoring harmony after disputes.

although functionalist model superseded, later neofunctional theorists adopted approach examining ways ritual regulated larger ecological systems. roy rappaport, example, examined way gift exchanges of pigs between tribal groups in papua new guinea maintained environmental balance between humans, available food (with pigs sharing same foodstuffs humans) , resource base. rappaport concluded ritual, ...helps maintain undegraded environment, limits fighting frequencies not endanger existence of regional population, adjusts man-land ratios, facilitates trade, distributes local surpluses of pig throughout regional population in form of pork, , assures people of high quality protein when in need of . similarly, j. stephen lansing traced how intricate calendar of hindu balinese rituals served regulate vast irrigation systems of bali, ensuring optimum distribution of water on system while limiting disputes.

rebellion

while functionalists sought link ritual maintenance of social order, south african functionalist anthropologist max gluckman coined phrase rituals of rebellion describe type of ritual in accepted social order symbolically turned on head. gluckman argued ritual expression of underlying social tensions (an idea taken victor turner), , functioned institutional pressure valve, relieving tensions through these cyclical performances. rites functioned reinforce social order, insofar allowed tensions expressed without leading actual rebellion. carnival viewed in same light. observed, example, how first-fruits festival (incwala) of south african bantu kingdom of swaziland symbolically inverted normal social order, king publicly insulted, women asserted domination on men, , established authority of elders on young turned upside down.